Danielle Muntyan
OUGD501 Context of Practice
How has the 21st
Century Media Affected Women’s Perception of Body Image and the Ideal?
A number of theorists and authors have
considered how the 21st century media have used imagery to
sexually-objectify women to the advantage of men resulting in, theories of
self-objectification, the gaze, the mirror stage, and eating disorders, as well
as other mental illnesses. Fredrickson & Roberts (1997), Thompson &
Heinberg (1999), and Greer (1970 & 1999) have all commented upon the fact
that the media plays a crucial part of body image perception and mental illnesses,
in a sociocultural context. For instance, Fredrickson & Roberts, conducted
social and psychological experiments which “asserted that women to varying
degrees internalize [an] outsider view and begin to self-objectify by treating
themselves as an object to be looked at and evaluated on the basis of
appearance” (1997) showing the backlash of media and photography, and their
perceived views of themselves. Thompson & Heinberg (1999) have supported
this through researching into the media and it’s role within a socio-cultural
realm. Together they stated that “a socio-cultural model emphasizes that the
current societal standard for thinness, as well as other difficult-to-achieve
standards of beauty for women, is omnipresent and, without resorting to extreme
and maladaptive behaviors, but impossible to achieve for the average woman”
(Fallon, 1990; Heinberg 1996) (see image 1) explaining the link to mental
health and the need to constantly reach a goal. Whilst theorists analyzed the
effect of the media on women, authors and feminists have also commented upon
the change in the female ideal, supporting the evidence shown above. Germaine
Greer commented upon the change, however in a more hard-hitting, feminist pun -
“just how much sex is there in a skeleton?” (1970) mocking in ‘in’ figure,
donned by the elite, celebs and the fashion industry, promoting an
international visual ideal, whilst hiding the hurtful truth behind the sharp
figure, which has captivated the youth of today.
The noted three authors and theorists
mentioned above, all recognize a link between the media, photography and the
changed perceived views of the ideal female physique, resulting in physical
changes which cannot be acquired without great motivation, inspiration,
distorted body image perception and extreme physical activity. Fredrickson
& Roberts (1997), and Thompson & Heinberg (1999) look analytically at
the mental issues related to eating disorders and similar mental obstacles,
whilst Greer (1970) pays more attention to the perceived view of those not
affected from an outsider’s view, whilst mocking those who are trying to fall
in line. Greer shows passion in her writings when discussing the male view of
the female figure. She discusses how a Kate Moss skeleton-esk figure, can be
more appealing and sexual than the then ‘in’ figure of beauty, such as that of Marilyn
Monroe, for example. The change over the past century has shown the ideal as a
cursive figure, as well as a slim figure however the same issues have always
surfaced, keeping in with the new, and the idea of perfection and acceptance. Greer
has always argued that women should remain healthy, however remaining conscious
of the socio-cultural effect of media, negating that “every woman knows that,
regardless of all her other achievements, she is a failure if she is not
beautiful” (1999). She is condoning the reasoning behind women’s desires to be
beautiful, whilst recognizing that “every human body has its optimum weight and
height and contour, which only health and efficiency can establish. Whenever we
treat women’s bodies as aesthetic objects without function we deform them”
(1970) elaborating on issues regarding mental health and self-perception of
ones aesthetic.
Thompson & Heinberg (1999), noted
during their research into the media’s influence on body image disturbance and
eating disorders, that what is shown through mass media to the public promoting
the present day ideal, is not necessarily what is seen on the other side of the
camera. Theorist Freedman (1986) was noted stating, “the impact of today’s
visual media is different from the effect of the visual arts of the past.
Historically, figures of art were romanticized as otherworldly and
unattainable. In contrast, print and electronic media images blur the
boundaries between a fictionalized ideal and reality … Photographic techniques
such as airbrushing, soft-focus cameras, composite figures, editing and filters
may blur the realistic nature of media images even further, leading consumers
to believe that the models the viewers see through the illusions these
techniques create are realistic representations of actual people”. This shows
how powerful photo manipulation and photography can be with misdirecting the
viewer to an ideal, which ironically doesn’t eve exist itself. The effect of
photographic illusion, is supported by Heinberg (1996) & Mazur (1986), as
they recognize the sociocultural pressures around an individual, whilst noting,
“the mass media are the most potent and persuasive communicators of
sociocultural standards” (1999) and therefore a reflection of being a main
contributor to mental illnesses and eating disorders internationally. This is
further supported by a study carried out by Nichter & Nichter (1991),
whereby teenage girls “endorsed their ideal as the models found in fashion
magazines aimed at [this target audience]. The ideal teenage girl was described
as being 5’7”, 100 pounds, and a size 5 with long blonde hair and blue eyes.
Researching such an extreme ideal is quite unrealistic for most women and also
dangerous, given that the body mass index of someone with such proportions is
less than 16, clearly in the anorexic and amenorrehic range”. Amenorrhea is the
loss of the menstrual cycle for women whose weight drops to a critical range.
This echoes the extreme change in ideal, the power and the persuasion of the
fashion industry, endorsing a physique, which is not achievable, unrealistic
and very unhealthy and dangerous, at the cost of promoting, and pressuring a
‘beauty’, which could ultimately be a death wish. The dimensions and specifics
stated show a stereotypical model aesthetic, similar to that of a Mattel Barbie
doll. The daily pressures of looking beautiful remains a vital thought for
women world wide on a daily basis. The media performing on an international
platform has the power, money and pressure to press and advertise the ideal,
whilst disregarding the harsh facts and evidence of being the ‘perfect’ size
woman. The 3 authors mentioned above, group key elements together regarding the
media, reflecting its strikingly powerful influence on eating disorders and
body image perception after being brainwashed by different ideals for decades,
with ever changing physiques coming into play – “The woman is tailoring herself
to appeal to the buyer’s market” (Greer, 1970) allowing physiques and trends to
come and go, causing further health problems and self image issues to occur and
reoccur over time.
Whilst Thompson & Heinberg (1999)
stated that the mass media and photography have played a tremendous impact on
the constant need for females to desire a physique which is unattainable, for
most, whilst being dangerous and harmful to oneself, they argue that internalization
of rising social pressures adds more pressure and again can lead to
miss-direction, eating disorders and other mental instabilities amongst women
and teenagers causing them to strive for body image change. They carried out
several studies to back-up their theories. Thompson & Heinburg, joined
sides with Stormer, another theorist (1999) when they “used the Sociocultural
Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire, which they created, to discover a
correlation between internalization and body dissatisfaction and eating
disturbance, and that internalization predicts variance even when simple
awareness of pressures and other risk factors as such as teasing are accounted for”
(Heinberg, 1995). This point is
supported by Shorter, Brown, Quinton and Hilton (2008) whereby further prompts
relative to media, appear to be starting points for body dysmorphia and
resultant eating issues and disorders – “people reap rewards in society based
on complying with societal ideals and norms. People make social comparisons in
order to acquire socially desirable qualities” (2008). This point is further
supported by a statement Shorter made (2008), stating that “people then go on
to compare themselves to others that match-desired prototype and make changes
accordingly” (Shorter, 2008, pp. 1365) regardless of the extremes which people
which may fall in to and obey. The three theorists and authors noted, all
support facts and evidence, showing how the media has a direct impact on the
desired physique of those who strive to ‘fit in’ with the ideals of the media
and society of the present day whether they are realistic to achieve or not.
It is a subject, which authors and
theorists alike are passionate about, and all share similar views in the way
the media portray the ideal, as well as the progressive updates of dieting,
exercising and online thinspiration sites that are advertising the dangers of
‘beauty’. The end goal remains the same, regardless of the route chosen –
thinness, whether for yourself or a dominant male figure. Feminist and Author
Germaine Greer (1970) summarizes the point regarding those who strive towards a
sociocultural considered perfect ideal, which has been created as a result of
the fashion industry and mass media advertising – “Demands are made upon [women] to contour
their bodies in order to please the eyes of others. Women are so insecure that
they take measures to capitulate to this demand, whether it is rational or not.
The thinnest women either diet because of an imagined grossness somewhere or
fret because they are not cursive: the bounciness of their curves, or diet to
lose them. The curvy girl who ought to be thin and the thin girl who ought to
be curvy are offered more or less dangerous medications to achieve their aims.
In each case the woman is tailoring herself to appeal to a buyers’ market; her
most exigent buyer may be her husband, who goes on exacting her approximation
to the accepted image as a condition of his continuing desire and pride in her
… Whether the curves imposed are the ebullient arabesques of the tit-queen or
the attenuated coils of art-nouveau they are deformations of the dynamic,
individual body and limitations of the possibilities of being female.” Greer
comments on the desire to fit in whether it is for a loved one, but each
individual has different physical boundaries, which are often pushed to
extremes to achieve the ideal that the opposition has envisioned. But how is
the ideal donned to be the ‘perfect’ face or figure? Naomi Wolf (1991), author
and feminist, supports Greer and the questioned ideal with a simple
explanation; “The ‘perfect’ face … is not far-fetching because of anything
innately special about the face: Why that one? It’s only power is that it has
been designated as “the face” – and hence millions and millions of women are
looking at it together, and you know it.” Wolf suggests that a reflection of
the ideal is a trigger for change, whether it is facially or physically. The
media are constantly advertising with thin, beautiful models, which fit in with
the trend, and the ideal woman of the moment. When you are exposed to something
so often, it’s common to fit in with the masses, and follow the ideal trends of
culture and beauty. To do so one must analyze one and make changes where
appropriate. To fit in with the sociocultural visage created and labeled
perfect doesn’t just mean beauty it means a societal conformation to a
categorized ideal. Whereby we think we will free if we fit in and conform,
however we are being shaped together in a prison like society. Jacques Lacan
supports the points made by both Greer and Wolf in his ‘Mirror Stage’ theory
essay (whereby one can recognize themselves in a mirror from the age of 6
months); “In the anxiety of the individual confronting the ‘concentrational’
form of the social bond that seems to arise to crown this effort,
existentialism must be judged by the explanations it gives of the subjective
impasses that have indeed resulted from it; a freedom that is never more
authentic than when it is within the walls of a prison; a demand for
commitment, expressing the impotence of a pure consciousness to master any
situation; a voyeuristic-sadistic idealization of the sexual relation” (1949,
p. 508).
Expanding on Lacan’s Mirror Stage
theory, it is important to recognize how the theory is associated with the
media and disordered eating. Our physical being can be seen from a tender age,
allowing us to criticize ourselves and acknowledge where changes should or need
to be made. Lacan, along with other psychologists and theorists, such as Freud,
stated that “the mirror itself is a ‘double’, where the person is oneself and
the image the person sees is another self … Since this produces a double image,
what is visible may actually be invisible or altered through our own
perceptions” (Lind, 2009). Lind presses the point that as a child we are naïve
to our self-image perception and generally remain happy with our physique and
reflection, or gaze. However, psychologist, Felluga (2002) supports Lacan and
Freud in their theories of the mirror stage, by noting that “as an adolescent
or an adult, the image of ourselves is often replaced with an idol, someone
that we wish was the image ourselves for whatever reason” whether this be for
ourselves, the market or our target audience, who generally tends to be the
male population, striving to be noticed by the male gaze. Wolf and Greer have
both supported this theory of a male focus, which drives us to change our
aesthetics to suit those of the ideal advertised through mass media in a
sociocultural environment we are being held captive in. The severity of the
dangers regarding being caught up in the mirror stage, is supported further by
Grant & Philips putting Lacan’s theory into modern day sociocultural and
medical context; “Often people with Anorexia or Bulimia suffer from Body
Dysmorphic Disorder, which is clinically defined as by being preoccupied and
obsessed with imaginary defects in appearance. It’s two most common behavior’s
of Body Dysmorphic Disorder include comparing appearance to the appearance of
others, and thus losing the recognition of the self, and “excessively checking
the perceived flaws in a mirror or in other reflecting surfaces” (2005). By
suffering from this type of mental illness, the mind becomes used to the image
you are conscious of being, and believes the distorted view of themselves in
the gaze and their reflection, being unable to recognize the beauty in their
true reflection. Lacan and Freud with their theories of the mirror gaze and the
mirror stage have proven that a reflection of oneself can be a blessing or
curse if suffering from an illness, which becomes an obsession to achieve the
unattainable without extreme measures.
It is known that our own views of
ourselves aren’t the only contributing factor to dramatic changes in our
appearance to meet the socially accepted standards of beauty and the ideal. As
mentioned, males are noted to be a known contributor, as well as how we
mentally recognize and view our reflection of ourselves. Self-Objectification
is known as one of the main contenders, with theories of occupation and
environments adding to mental illnesses and disordered eating. Slater &
Tiggemann, (2002) suggested that “situations, environments, and subcultures
accentuate awareness of observers’ perspectives on women’s bodies, such as
ballet dancing, beauty pageants, modeling and cheerleading” leading to
obsession with self image, and the opinion and views of others, feeling the
desire to fit in and be in line with others in the same situation, allowing
analysis of body image to rise. The outcome is further supported by Fredrickson
& Roberts, (1997), whereby “turning to women’s internalization of cultural
self-objectification, objectification theory postulates that
self-objectification will be related to various psychological consequences, and
these psychological consequences will mediate the relationship between
self-objectification and disordered eating, depression, and sexual dysfunction
(see image 1)”. To add further support to the theories noted above and
throughout this essay, Moradi and Huang’s (2008) review of self-objectification
theory research, “revealed that self-objectification has been found to be
related to lower internal bodily awareness, more disconnection from bodily
functions, decreased flow rates, difficulties in task performance, increased
body shame, more appearance anxiety, and both eating disorder and depressive
symptoms”. It is evident that which ever theory chosen to analyze the need or
desire to be thin, ideal and beautiful, results in a list of consequences which
affect one mentally and physically without necessarily knowing oneself.
It is possible to blame the media
entirely on the advertised ideals in the 21st century, however, as
discussed, there are many theories and view points on the topic of the ideal
and the evident pressure for society to fall in line and conform, which all
constitute good arguments individually. Every woman deserves the right to be
beautiful, without feeling pressure from a socio-cultural society that dictates
what is right, and what is wrong in regards to image and feeling attractive. However,
this seems unattainable in a modern day environment whereby women are more
negative about their bodies and self-worth than ever before. In a recent survey
conducted by Rader Programme, it was stated that “the majority of runway models
meet the Body Mass Index (BMI) criteria to be considered anorexic” whilst
Psychology Today conducted a survey in 1997 claiming that “of 3,452 women [who
responded], 23% indicated that movie or television celebrities influenced their
body image … and 22% endorsed the influence of fashion magazine models”
(Garner, 1997) which again supports the severity of the topic at hand and the
power of the mass media world we are captivated by.
Whichever way eating disorders and
self-image concerns are looked at, it is apparent with overwhelming evidence,
that the mass media provides the perfect starting point for a mental illness or
self-objectification to thrive off, and grow, leading to disordered eating and
body dysmorphia, whereby in many cases it can reach extreme severity or death,
as a result of wanting to fit in and be considered the beautiful, ‘perfect’ and
ideal woman.
2998 words.
Image 1.
References:
Szymanski, D. Moffitt, L. Carr, E.. (2011). Sexual Objectification
of Women: Advances to Theory and Research.. The Counselling Psychologist.
39 (1) (6-38), p.8.
Thompson, J. Heinberg, L.. (1999). The Media’s Influence on Body
Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We’ve reviled them, now can we
rehabilitate them?. Journal of Social Issues. 55, No.2. (pp. 339-353), p.340.
Szymanski, D. Moffitt, L. Carr, E.. (2011). Sexual Objectification
of Women: Advances to Theory and Research.. The Counselling Psychologist.
39 (1) (6-38), p.8.
Greer, G.. (1970). Sex. In: Greer, G. The Female Eunch. 9th
ed. London: Harper Collins. p.35.
Greer, G.. (2007). N/A. In: Greer, G. The Whole Woman.
London: Black Swan. p. unknown.
Greer, G.. (1970). Curves. In: Greer, G. The Female Eunch.
9th ed. London: Harper Collins. p.41.
Thompson, J. Heinberg, L.. (1999). The Media’s Influence on Body
Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We’ve reviled them, now can we
rehabilitate them?. Journal of Social Issues. 55, No.2. (pp. 339-353), p.340.
Thompson, J. Heinberg, L.. (1999). The Media’s Influence on Body
Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We’ve reviled them, now can we
rehabilitate them?. Journal of Social Issues. 55, No.2. (pp. 339-353), p.340.
Thompson, J. Heinberg, L.. (1999). The Media’s Influence on Body
Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We’ve reviled them, now can we
rehabilitate them?. Journal of Social Issues. 55, No.2. (pp. 339-353), p.341.
Greer, G.. (1970). Curves. In: Greer, G. The Female Eunch.
9th ed. London: Harper Collins. p.41.
Thompson, J. Heinberg, L.. (1999). The Media’s Influence on Body
Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We’ve reviled them, now can we
rehabilitate them?. Journal of Social Issues. 55, No.2. (pp. 339-353), p.341.
Heinberg, (1995). Shorter. Brown. Quinton. Hilton. (2008)
Disordered Eating and The Media. Essay, p.unknown.
Shorter. (2008) Disordered Eating and The Media. Essay, pp.1365.
Greer, G.. (1970). Curves. In: Greer, G. The Female Eunch.
9th ed. London: Harper Collins. p.40-41.
Wolf, N.. (1991). Culture. In: Wolf, N. The Beauty Myth.
London: Vintage. 76.
Lacan, J.. (1949). The Mirror Stage as Formative of the Function
of the I as Revealed in Psychoanalytic Experience. In: Sheridan, A. The
Mirror Stage. N/A: N/A. p.508.
Lind. (2009) The Mirror Gaze and Eating Disorders. Essay, p.n/a.
Felluga. (2002) The Mirror Gaze and Eating Disorders. Essay,
p.n/a.
Grant. Phillips. (2005) The Mirror Gaze and Eating Disorders.
Essay, p.n/a.
Szymanski, D. Moffitt, L. Carr, E.. (2011). Sexual Objectification
of Women: Advances to Theory and Research.. The Counselling Psychologist.
39 (1) (6-38), p.12.
Szymanski, D. Moffitt, L. Carr, E.. (2011). Sexual Objectification
of Women: Advances to Theory and Research.. The Counselling Psychologist.
39 (1) (6-38), p.12.
Szymanski, D. Moffitt, L. Carr, E.. (2011). Sexual Objectification
of Women: Advances to Theory and Research.. The Counselling Psychologist.
39 (1) (6-38), p.12.
Rader, P.. (2013.). Eating Disorders Facts & Figures..
Available: http://www.raderprograms.com/causes-statistics/media-eating-disorders.html.
Last accessed 30th Dec 2013.
Thompson, J. Heinberg, L.. (1999). The Media’s Influence on Body
Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We’ve reviled them, now can we
rehabilitate them?. Journal of Social Issues. 55, No.2. (pp. 339-353), p.341.
